India’s caste system is one of the world’s oldest and most enduring social hierarchies. Its roots stretch back more than 3,000 years into ancient Vedic society. And although the Indian Constitution outlawed caste discrimination in 1950, the system continues to shape politics, marriages, economic opportunity and social interactions in profound ways. Its persistence reflects both centuries of social conditioning and its ability to adapt to a rapidly changing nation.
Origins in the Vedic Age
The first outlines of the caste order appear in the Vedic period (1500–500 BCE). The Rigveda’s Purusha Sukta hymn describes society emerging from the cosmic being Purusha:
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Brahmins from the head, symbolising knowledge
The varna system in ancient India, with Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras derived from the cosmic being Purusha and Chandala ‘untouchables’ shown outside the varna framework. -
Kshatriyas from the arms, representing power
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Vaishyas from the thighs, driving trade and agriculture
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Shudras from the feet, forming the base of service and labour
These divisions were initially linked to occupation and were more flexible than they later became. Over centuries, however, texts like the Manusmriti hardened caste into a hereditary code, laying out rules of purity, pollution and strict endogamy. As time passed, the four varnas splintered into thousands of jatis, or sub-castes, defined by region, occupation and local custom. This created a complex social map that influenced not only Hindus but also other communities.
Dalits: Outside the Varna System
At the margins of this hierarchy stood Dalits, a term meaning “broken” or “oppressed.” Pushed outside the varna structure, Dalits were forced into work considered ritually impure-cleaning human and animal waste, handling dead bodies, leatherwork and other tasks that marked them as “untouchable.” They were barred from temples, wells, schools and entire neighbourhoods, facing both social exclusion and violence.
But while Dalit history reveals the harshest effects of caste, the system never looked the same across India. Understanding this variation helps explain why caste remains so deeply rooted.
Regional Differences Shape Social Reality
Caste does not operate uniformly across the country. In the south, Dravidian traditions and anti-Brahmin movements reshaped the hierarchy; in the north, classical varna ideals held more tightly. Tribal communities, or Adivasis, about 8.6 per cent of the population, often lived outside the caste system altogether, following their own social structures.
These diverse experiences also influenced how resistance to caste took shape.
Centuries of Pushback and Reform
Challenges to caste hierarchy have long been part of Indian history. The Bhakti movement (7th–15th centuries) cut across caste lines, emphasising devotion over ritual purity. In the 19th and 20th centuries, reformers pushed further.
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Jyotirao Phule condemned caste as a form of social tyranny.
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Dr B.R. Ambedkar, a Dalit scholar and architect of the Constitution, led movements against untouchability and fought for equal rights.
B. R. Ambedkar frontfacing portrait
These efforts helped shape modern India’s legal framework.
Laws, Safeguards and Reservations
The Constitution guarantees equality before the law (Article 14), bans discrimination (Article 15), and abolishes untouchability (Article 17). It also directs the state to promote the welfare of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
Affirmative action has been central to this goal. Today, reservations in education and government employment include:
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15% for SCs
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7.5% for STs
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27% for OBCs
Yet discrimination persists. SCs constitute 16.6% of the population; STs 8.6%. NCRB data recorded over 51,000 cases of caste-based atrocities in 2023, highlighting the gap between legal protections and lived experience.
Caste in Contemporary India
Caste continues to intersect with gender, class and religion. Dalit women often face multiple layers of discrimination. Marriage patterns remain largely endogamous, and caste remains a powerful force in elections. While cities blur some social boundaries, rural India still enforces caste norms strictly.
Debates around reservation policies remain heated. Critics argue they reinforce divisions and undermine merit. Supporters counter that structural inequalities—such as a 21-point literacy gap for SCs—make affirmative action essential.
Stories Behind the Statistics
Individual stories show both the burdens of caste and the possibilities of change. Dalit entrepreneur Kalpana Saroj’s rise from a childhood of poverty to leading a major business empire represents remarkable upward mobility. Meanwhile, young priests like Ravi Shankar reinterpret rituals to connect with urban youth, showing how traditional roles evolve with time.
Recent developments- from Bihar’s 2024 caste survey to the Supreme Court’s ruling on sub-classification, have reignited national debate. Abroad, too, caste is gaining attention: California passed an anti-caste discrimination bill in 2024, reflecting concerns within diaspora communities.
The Road Ahead
Enforcing existing laws more effectively, expanding access to quality education and encouraging sustained dialogue between communities are key to progress. Civil society groups, corporate diversity programs and youth-led initiatives are pushing for change at the grassroots level.
Caste remains a powerful shadow on Indian society, but with continued reform, political will and generational shift, India can move closer to the constitutional ideals of equality, dignity and justice for all.
